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Landscape fire smoke contributes to hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide, new research suggests

Andros Island Household Trash Management

Worldwide, smoke from landscape fires contributed to an average of 339,000 deaths per year between 1997 and 2006, according to new research published in Environmental Health Perspectives and released today during the Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).

Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia were the hardest hit by fire-smoke deaths, with an estimated annual average of 157,000 and 110,000 deaths, respectively, attributable to landscape fire smoke exposure, said researcher Fay Johnston, who represented a global team at the 2012 AAAS Annual Meeting in Vancouver, Canada.

"It's time to look at deforestation impacts on fires, which in turn affect human health," said Johnston, a research fellow at the Menzies Research Institute, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.

Johnston and her co-authors specifically assessed the health impacts of particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers, an important byproduct of landscape fire smoke. First, they looked at satellite data to gather information on areas burned each year during the study period; particulate matter exposures were estimated using a chemical transport model, satellite-based observations, and other data. They applied an accepted World Health Organization framework for determining annual mortality in different regions, and they used results from previous research on the health effects of smoke-related particulate matter to estimate deaths attributable to fire smoke. They further calculated annual mortality during a La Niña period, and an El Niño period. Worldwide, deaths from fire smoke during those periods were estimated at 262,000 and 532,000, respectively, compared with an estimated 10-year global average of 339,000 deaths.

"Fire emissions are an important contributor to global mortality," the EHP article concludes. "Adverse health outcomes associated with landscape fire smoke could be substantially reduced by curtailing burning of tropical rainforests, which rarely burn naturally. The large estimated influence of El Niño suggests a relationship between climate and the burden of mortality attributable to landscape fire smoke."

Johnston is participating in a special AAAS Annual Meeting seminar at 8:30 am Pacific Standard Time on Sunday, February 19. The session is titled "Climate Change in Northern Latitudes—Forest Fires in Canada: Impacts of Climate Change and Fire Smoke."

She also agreed to take part in a related news briefing at 2:00 pm PST on Saturday, February 18. She was joined by fellow panelists Michael Brauer of the University of British Columbia; Mike Flannigan of the University of Alberta; Gordon McBean of the University of Western Ontario; and Douglas Woolford of Wilfrid Laurier University.

The panelists noted that fire scorches 350 to 400 million hectares of land every year—an area larger than the size of India—emitting greenhouse gases as well as fine particulate matter that can be harmful to people and animals. As global warming continues, vegetation becomes dryer, lightning strikes more frequently, and fire seasons change.

Woolford's research reveals, for example, that the fire season now begins earlier and ends later in Alberta than it did in 1960. Climate change affects the frequency of extreme weather, too, causing unusually warm events to happen more often.

Also during the AAAS news briefing, Mike Flannigan released new predictions of future global fire severity, based on three specific climate-change scenarios. He further discussed concerns about the increasing number of peat fires, which release significant amounts of greenhouse gases as well as high levels of mercury.

Brauer discussed approaches for estimating population exposure to forest fire smoke and the evaluation of a smoke forecasting tool for public health preparedness. He summarized studies of health impacts of fire smoke exposure in Canada and evaluated the effectiveness of room air cleaners in reducing exposure to fire smoke.

Johnston's co-authors on the EHP paper, "Estimated Global Mortality Attributable to Smoke from Landscape Fires," were Sarah B. Henderson, Yang Chen, James T. Randerson, Miriam Marlier, Ruth S. DeFries, Patrick Kinney, David M.I.S. Bowman, and Michael Brauer. Environmental Health Perspectives is published by the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, one of the National Institutes of Health. Funding for the research was provided by the Australian Research Council, the University of Tasmania, and NASA.

Contact: Ginger Pinholster
gpinhols@aaas.org
202-326-6440
American Association for the Advancement of Science

Andros Island Household Trash Management

 

How Fires Impact Human Health & Air Quality

Seagrass meadow found to be composed of extremely old, large organisms

Mediterranean seagrass meadows contain genetically identical clones up to 15 kilometers apart, suggesting that these organisms must be thousands to tens of thousands of years old, as reported in the Feb. 1 issue of the online journal PLoS ONE.

The seagrass, Posidonia oceanica, reproduces asexually, which can result in single organisms that are very large and very old. To investigate the P. oceanica meadow, the researchers, led by Sophie Arnaud-Haond of the French Research Institute for Exploration of the Sea (IFREMER) and The University of the Algarve in Portugal and Carlos M. Duarte from the CSIC-IMEDEA in Spain, sampled populations across 3500 kilometers of the Mediterranean. Not all the seagrass they found was genetically identical, but those that were suggest both extreme size and age.

Seagrasses are the basis of essential coastal ecosystems but are waning worldwide, and P. oceanica meadows are declining at an estimated rate of about 5% per year. The results reported in PLoS ONE suggest that clones of that species have adapted to a broad range of environmental conditions, but the unprecedented rate of global climate change, together with the steep decline in seagrasses already observed for the past 20 years, are raising serious concerns about the continued survival of this long-lived species.

Citation: Arnaud-Haond S, Duarte CM, Diaz-Almela E, Marba` N, Sintes T, et al. (2012) Implications of Extreme Life Span in Clonal Organisms: Millenary Clones in Meadows of the Threatened Seagrass Posidonia oceanica. PLoS ONE 7(2): e30454.  doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030454

This research was supported by the Foundation BBVA (Spain), the European Commission (M&MS EU project; FEDER/POCI 2010, FCT, project NETWORK&DIVSTAB). These funders are national (Portuguese FCT) or European (FP5) agencies funding research projects. T. Sintes acknowledges the Project FIS2007-60327, funded by the Spanish MEC.

Contact: Yael Franco
yfranco@plos.org
415-568-3169
Public Library of Science

Mediterranean Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii)

Mediterranean Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii). Credit: Constantine Alexander. All rights reserved

The Mediterranean Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii) is an endearing but reclusive marine bird that inhabits southern Europe and southwest Asia principally along Mediterranean coasts and, to a lesser extent, the Black Sea coast. It is one of three subspecies of the European Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) which is noted for being among the deepest divers in the cormorant family capable of reaching depths to 45 metres in search of its preferred fish and other mid-water as well as benthic community prey. The other two subspecies are P. aristotelis aristotelis which inhabits northwest Europe along the Atlantic coast and P. aristotelis riggenbachi which resides along the northwestern African coast.

The Mediterranean Sea, which is situated at the crossroads of Europe, Africa and Asia, has been described in Latin as mare medi terraneum - the “sea in the middle of land”. The sea occupies a 2,509,559 square kilometre surface area with an average depth of 1,460 metres and a maximum depth of 5,267 metres. The sea’s coastline extends 46,000 kilometres through 22 countries. The Mediterranean Sea has a restricted interchange with the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar on the west and the Black Sea through the Strait of Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmara to the east. Although the Mediterranean Sea covers only 1% of the world’s marine areas, it hosts 6% of the world’s marine species. It is to this region that the Mediterranean Shag is endemic and contributes to the natural beauty, rich biodiversity and remarkable productivity of the region’s extraordinary coastal and marine environment.

Description:

As an excellent swimmer and diver, the Mediterranean Shag is a robust, medium to large size marine bird measuring approximately 70-80 centimetres in length with an expansive 95-110 centimetre wingspan. The streamlined Shag has dark feathers, a long narrow bill, pale coloured cheeks on its face and a long curved neck. Its strong feet are designed to facilitate its propulsion through the water when diving and foraging in coastal waters. The Mediterranean Shag is easily distinguishable by its curved crown tuft of feathers during breeding season.

Distribution:

Mediterranean Shags prefer an undisturbed natural environment along rocky coasts and islands adjacent to clear water inhabited by their preferred prey of fish and other mid-water and benthic marine organisms. Mediterranean Shags are usually never far from land and can be found roosting on isolated rocks and boulders along the shore. The reclusive shags can also be seen swimming and diving along the coast, often alone and away from human activities. These habitats can be found along their geographical distribution range which includes Spain, Gibraltar (UK), France, Italy, Greece, Slovenia, Croatia, Bulgaria, Albania, Ukraine, Turkey, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Cyprus and Egypt where the entire global population of the Mediterranean Shag is estimated to be fewer than 10,000 breeding pairs.

Approximately one half of the global population breeds in the European Union (EU), especially along the coasts of Spain, Baleares, Corsica, Sardinia, Tuscany archipelago, Lampedusa as well as Ionian and Aegean sea islands and islets. Countries which have recently had among the highest estimated Mediterranean Shag populations include Croatia, Italy, Turkey, Spain, France and Greece.

There have been very significant fluctuations in breeding numbers from year to year in several Mediterranean colonies which, along with the reclusive behaviour of the bird, have contributed to the difficulty in estimating the population with the desired degree of reasonable accuracy; however, according to the 2002 Mediterranean Shag Species Action Plan for the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats by BirdLife International for the European Commission, the global population was estimated to be fewer than 10,000 pairs shortly after the turn of the century. By 2011, Mediterranean Shag experts were in agreement that the subspecies population had declined largely as a result of human activities that adversely impact their breeding, foraging and roosting behaviour.

At a higher taxonomic level, the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged in its 2009 assessment that the “population trend appears to be decreasing” as well for the European Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) species to which the Mediterranean Shag subspecies belongs, although the European Shag was not then considered threatened at a global level.

Diet and Foraging:

With its proficiency as a foot-propelled pursuit diver, the Mediterranean Shag forages in mid-water or along the bottom of sandy and rocky sea beds and shows a preference for sheltered fishing grounds such as bays and channels, although it generally avoids estuaries, shallow or muddy inlets and fresh or brackish waters. The Mediterranean Shag usually forages alone when away from nesting colonies and during winter, but a dense shoal of fish may attract a small flock of Mediterranean shags in search of essential nutrition.

The Mediterranean Shag diet consists primarily of coastal fish species and marine benthic organisms. For example, according to one 2011 report of a Mediterranean Shag study conducted off the Croatian coast and in the Gulf of Trieste, post-breeding Mediterranean Shags in the Gulf preyed on fish species largely from the demersal and relatively immobile Goby (Gobiidae) family, such as the dimunitive Black Goby (Gobius niger) that usually reaches 10 centimetres (cm) in length. During the breeding season the Shags exhibited a more varied diet including more mobile benthic-pelagic prey such as the Brown Comer (Serranus hepatus) that usually reaches 15 cm and is found over seagrass, sand, mud and rocks; and the Peacock or Painted Wrasse (Crenilabrus tinca) that averages 25-30 cm in length and lives up to 14 years; and the schooling Big Scale Sand Smelt (Atherina boyeri) that is small, usually 7-10 cm in length. In addition, the Mediterranean Shag diet also includes other species from the Labridae family of wrasses; the Ammodytidae family of sand lances including small sandeels which burrow into the sand; and, to a lesser extent, polychaetes (segmented, or bristled, worms), cephalopods, other molluscs, and small benthic crustaceans.

The Mediterranean Shag can often be seen swimming alone along the coast during the cold months of winter, during which time most tourists and residents are absent from the seashore and refrain from recreational marine activities such as boating. The bird can be distinguished from other cormorant species as it makes a slight upward movement with the upper half of its body allowing it to stretch before it arches its head and neck as a prelude to diving into the water to feed on the fish or other marine prey that can be found midway in shallow coastal water or along the bottom of rocky or sandy sea beds. Ornithologists have always stressed the important contribution of healthy seagrasses to the reproduction and population sustainability of fish and other marine organisms that are a staple food source for the Mediterranean Shag.

Reproduction:

During the winter breeding season, Mediterranean Shags form sparse colonies and nest in rocky crevices, ledges, caves within sea cliffs or in between boulders. Their nesting dates vary from year to year depending on the region and its conditions. The nests, which are constructed of a variety of marine vegetation and other plant materials, are usually situated within a few metres above the high water level, but they have been recorded at altitudes reaching and even exceeding 100 metres.

If the nests remain in good condition, they are often reused during successive seasons. The younger birds of breeding age nest later than the older, mature birds; therefore, the younger birds are left to occupy nest sites that are not as desirable or advantageous as their more mature counterparts. As a result, the younger birds experience a lower rate of breeding success. The egg-laying period frequently varies from year to year depending on the region, but this period usually occurs between December and March. During each breeding season, Mediterranean Shags do not exhibit synchronized breeding dates among the various colonies within their distribution range, or among colonies within a given region or even among individuals within the same colony. This lack of synchronisation is attributed to the different experience levels among the breeding birds, the different geographic locations of the colonies and the variety of weather conditions that pervade the colonies. At egg-laying, the birds usually produce a clutch of 3 eggs which are incubated for 30 days prior to hatching. The post-hatching period during which the chicks develop to a fully grown state lasts approximately 53 days, at which point the offspring are usually ready to fledge.

During the breeding season, the geographical radius from the colony in which the Mediterranean Shags conduct their foraging and other maintenance activities generally extends to 15 kilometres. At the end of the breeding season, the adults as well as the juveniles disperse over a wide area, which in some cases may reach or even exceed 200 kilometres according to ornithological ring recoveries, whereupon the Mediterranean Shags use more remote foraging grounds. At that time, small feeding and roosting groups are formed.

Threats:

Mediterranean Shags are subject to the same threats to which other marine birds are exposed, the most notable of which are:

• mortality as a result of accidental capture (bycatch) in fishing gear such as gill nets and fish traps, particularly when the gear is permanently located close to the shore;
• the destruction by trawlers of Posidonia seagrass meadows (Posidonia oceanica) and biogenic reefs that facilitate fish reproduction on which the Mediterranean Shags rely;
• the serious depletion of fish stocks through overfishing by Mediterranean fisheries, many of which participate in illegal and, to a very large extent, unreported fishing. This fish stock depletion is especially detrimental to Mediterranean Shags which prey on many fish species that are unsustainably over-harvested by these fisheries;
• Coastal development and coastal recreational activities that result in significant disturbances as well as habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation which adversely impact the birds’ foraging, roosting and breeding behaviour. Among the activities which represent some of the most serious threats to the Mediterranean Shags are tourism; motorised marine recreation including jet skis and speedboats; the construction of ports, marinas and sea walls; coastal commercial and residential development; and sand extraction for beach regeneration which can severely damage Posidonia seagrass beds and other benthic (marine seabed) communities on which the Mediterranean Shags feed and rely for their survival;
• uncontrolled boat anchoring that destroys seafloor habitats, such as seagrass meadows, which facilitate fish reproduction on which the birds rely; and
• toxic marine contaminants, such as organochlorines and mercury, from sources including land runoff, industrial discharges, oil spills and illegal ship tank washing which have permeated the various levels of the marine food chain in the widely contaminated Mediterranean Sea region and result in lethal as well as sub-lethal health consequences to Mediterranean Shag adults, chicks and eggs.

Additional threats to the Mediterranean Shag include:

• direct persecution by fisheries and fish farm operators as the birds are shot, intentionally drowned and poisoned because they are perceived to be a threat to fish stocks;
• illegal shooting of Mediterranean Shag vagrants to Malta from pleasure boats that sail from Malta to the Pelagian Islands of Italy and from Maltese fishing boats that target adults and recently fledged juveniles, according to the July 2002 Species Action Plan for Mediterranean Shags for the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats;
• direct hunting of adults and chicks as well as egg collection for food;
• unlawful beach sand extraction by private contractors for building construction in the Mediterranean region;
• the presence of dogs;
• predation of eggs and nestlings by black rats (Rattus rattus) and Yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) in certain locations such as Aegean Sea islands and islets; and
• livestock grazing and the presence of black rats that reduce vegetation cover which serves to shelter nesting sites, and this, in turn, reduces the availability of suitable breeding habitats.

Mortality from Fisheries:

Independent from fisheries reports, bird ringing recoveries reveal that more than 40% of the recorded mortality of the Mediterranean Shag is associated with fishing activities, including recreational fishing from the coast and the combined deployment of gill nets and trammel nets.

The combined use of gill nets and trammel nets consists of bottom-set gear comprised of 2 parts: the upper part is a standard gill net which is designed to catch fish by their gills and is maintained vertically by floats on the floatline and weights on the ground line, and the lower part of the combination is a trammel net where bottom fish become entangled. The combined fishing gear produces a high rate of accidental capture (bycatch) of diving seabirds, such as Mediterranean Shags, as they become caught at various levels of the water column and are drowned.

Drag Racing with Mediterranean Shags:

“The moral progress of a civilisation can be measured by the way it treats its animals.”

Mohandas Karamchand Ghandi (also known as Mahatma Ghandi, 1869-1948), political and ideological leader of India.

 A unique threat to marine birds with which certain Mediterranean Shag populations are faced is derived from resident speed boats that engage in the recreational pursuit of Mediterranean Shags. Incidents of “drag racing” with Mediterranean Shags have been reported in the Greek Dodecanese islands, despite the legal protection afforded to the species under the European Union Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) which remains largely unenforced in Greek as well as other southern European waters.

One example of such a report was filed on Tilos Island by two visitors from Germany on 8 March 2007 at the Hellenic Port Authority and the office of the 2004-2008 European Union (EU) Tilos Island LIFE Nature Project which was established for the benefit of the Mediterranean Shag and 2 other avian species. According to the reports based on witness and “drag racing” boat participants’ statements, island residents in speed boats chase the birds that fly low over the surface of the water prompting the birds to initiate a myriad of defensive manoeuvres in an effort to escape potential harm from the boats’ rapidly-approaching pursuits. This unlawful activity, for which no action was ever undertaken by the local Hellenic Port Authority in spite of the complaints delivered to the office concerning this unlawful behaviour, causes the progressive weakening and consequential inability of the birds to sustain evasive action. Witnesses to the March 2007 incident reported the fatality of the legally protected Mediterranean Shag, which became exhausted, disappeared below the surface and failed to resurface, simply for the fleeting entertainment of the Tilos Island residents.

In the absence of Hellenic public sector enforcement of the EU Birds Directive provisions, this recreational past-time along with other anthropogenic threats to the species’ conservation status contributes to the continuing Mediterranean Shag population decline in which certain stakeholders regrettably appear to be disinterested and about which experts continue to be justifiably concerned.  

Legal Protection:

Valid concerns about the declining Mediterranean Shag population prompted the inclusion of this European Shag subspecies in various laws and conventions related to its status and protection, including:

• European Union Birds Directive (79/409/EEC), Annex I;
• a listing for the Mediterranean population of the Phalacrocorax aristotelis species in the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix II;
• Barcelona Convention Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, Annex II which provides a List of Endangered or Threatened Species;
• Bulgarian Nature Conservation Act of 1962 and 1986 national legislation (amended in 1997) relating to punitive measures for acts resulting in injuries to or the death of individuals of the species. Also, the Bulgarian Red Data Book, listed under “Threatened Species”;
• Hunting Law of Tunisia;
• Terrestrial Hunting Law of Turkey; and
• Ukrainian Red Data Book, Category II.

Mediterranean Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii). Credit: Constantine Alexander. All rights reserved

 Contact: Constantine Alexander

Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae)

Falco eleonorae. Credit: Constantine Alexander. All Rights Reserved.

Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) is a resplendent migratory raptor named after Eleonora de Arborea from Sardinia [1347-1404], who, as a giudicessa (judge) from 1383 to her death, was a very influential figure in history. She is remembered for her creation of the world’s first legislation for the protection of a bird species which was named after her and became known as Falco eleonorae, the preservation of Sardinia’s independence from the Kingdom of Aragon and the enactment of very progressive laws (Carta de Logu) in 1395 which remained in force for nearly 5 centuries until Italian unification in 1861.

Description:

Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) at close range or in flight can be described as a stunning, stream-lined, swift and agile raptor, measuring approximately 36-42 centimetres in length with a 87-104 centimetre wingspan. Its weight ranges between 350-450 grams depending upon the gender with females being slightly larger than males.

Eleonora’s falcons appear in two quite different colour morphs – either a dark form exhibited by one third of the falcons or a light form exhibited by two-thirds of the falcons. The dark falcon is dark brown to slate colour over most of its body with a cream coloured throat, occasionally a reddish tinge on the underparts, and pale gray to buff coloured bars on the tail. By contrast, a light coloured falcon is dark on the back with a white or cream throat and neck, a distinctive dark curved stripe on its face that extends down to its neck, buff coloured underparts (that become more reddish towards its lower body) with dark brown spots or streaks. Its grayish tail may have reddish-brown bars with a dark tip.

The Eleonora’s falcon has long narrow wings which, when folded, extend beyond the tip of its long, relatively rounded tail. In flight, Eleonora’s falcon has dark underwing coverts (small feathers concealing the base of larger flight feathers) which contrast with paler flight feathers. Up close, the males can be distinguished from the females as they have a yellow ring around their eyes while the females have a blue ring. Most of the juveniles resemble the light form of the adult but are more brown and paler with barring on the underwing and more distinct bars on the flight as well as the tail feathers.

Distribution:

Eleonora’s falcons (Falco eleonorae) winter primarily in Madagascar, an island nation and biodiversity hotspot located off the south-eastern coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. Some of the falcons winter to a lesser extent in other parts of eastern Africa, including the archipelago island nation of Comoros which is north-west of Madagascar and the island of Reunion which is one of the Mascarene Islands located east of Madagascar.

The falcons leave their wintering grounds and migrate northwest in late April at which time the falcons travelling between Madagascar and the western Mediterranean engage in long distance journeys that can reach up to 9,000 kilometres with the falcons following an African inland route through the Sahara desert and the equatorial rainforests, according to satellite-tracking data. As weather conditions are paramount in shaping the migratory routes of birds, the falcons’ highly individualised migratory pathways vary due in part to the need to minimise meteorological barriers and benefit from favourable weather conditions such as tail winds blowing in the direction of their preferred travel routes.

During the spring through autumn seasons, the birds reside in the Mediterranean and in Atlantic islands off the northwest coast of Africa.  The falcons’ Atlantic and Mediterranean territory includes the Canary Islands, Balearic Islands, Columbretes islands, Portugal, Spain, Gibralter, Morocco, Algeria, France, Corsica, Malta, Tunisia, Italy, Croatia, Serbia, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, Egypt, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey and Israel.

According to BirdLife International, the European population of Eleonora’s falcons is estimated to be 5,900 to 6,200 breeding pairs, with the vast majority residing during the late summer and early autumn breeding season in Greece where the populations are widely distributed.

Falco eleonorae. Credit: Constantine Alexander. All Rights Reserved.

Foraging and Habitat:

Upon their annual return to the Mediterranean region in late April through the month of June, Eleonora’s falcons (Falco eleonorae) do not commence breeding preparations immediately, although they regularly visit their breeding sites. During this period, they roam widely over larger islands and mainland territory to satisfy their need for nourishment, fresh water and quiet communal roosting sites usually in trees following the rigorous spring migration and in preparation for their forthcoming breeding season which begins in July.

To forage, the falcons must often travel long distances that can exceed 50 kilometres in search of suitable feeding areas that are rich in insects which are customarily found in agricultural fields, forests and wetlands. The falcons also look for access to sufficient fresh water for drinking and bathing. The falcons often visit more than one location before settling down at their breeding colonies.

Eleonora’s falcons feed primarily on large flying insects such as beetles, butterflies, dragonflies, locusts, moths, cicadas and flying ants which are a crucial food source for them; however, they have been known to prey opportunistically on small birds. The falcons favour this insect diet during 10 months of the year, except in August and September which coincides with the height of the falcons’ reproduction season when they prey on migrating passerines that bolster their fitness following the demands of the breeding season and in preparation for the long return migration to their wintering grounds. As a foraging technique, these falcons catch prey in the air and, in the case of their insect prey, transfer the prey from talons to beak as they are not capable of pursuing their prey on the ground or in vegetation.

In their winter range, Eleonora’s falcons inhabit wetlands, open woodlands, forests, flooded fields of arable land used for growing rice and other semiaquatic crops, and lakes at elevations that in certain locations can reach 2,000 to 3,000 metres.

Breeding:

Eleonora’s falcons (Falco eleonorae) are colonial raptors that are unique among European birds in that they breed in late summer and early autumn. Males and females reach their breeding ages at 3 years and 3-4 years, respectively. Beginning in July, the falcons gather around their breeding sites in order to establish their respective territories and nests.

The falcons build their nests along rocky coasts and on steep cliffs as well as on undisturbed islets which provide sufficient shade, concealment and protection for the eggs and nestlings against excessive sun irradiation, predators and other disturbances including human disturbances. Breeding adults tend to return to the same territory of a colony from year to year. Throughout the range of the falcons’ breeding colonies and depending on the breeding terrain, the nests are constructed at variable altitudes ranging from a low of approximately 5 metres up to 100 metres in cliffs. The falcons customarily lay 1-3 eggs per nest in late July.

Eleonora’s falcon egg losses under natural conditions can reach as high as 43% due to rat predation (25%), infertility (10%) and sun irradiation (8%) while as many as 10% of the chicks may not be expected to survive. In certain breeding locations such as on Aegean islets, black rats (Rattus rattus) prey on unattended falcon eggs as well as nestlings and forage for any food left by the falcons; however, the rats are not a subject of Eleonora falcon prey because the falcons do not feed on ground animals.

Under successful breeding conditions, the chicks usually hatch in late August to early September, and they fledge in October. Most of the young are capable of flying by the end of October. In late November and early December, the falcons then embark upon a long return migration of thousands of kilometres to their Southern Hemispheric wintering grounds.

Studies indicate that juveniles undertake this lengthy migration independently of adults, despite their tender age of just 3-4 months. It is therefore understandable that juveniles take 3 times longer than adults to complete this autumnal migration in which the young falcons follow a more western course through Africa than their more mature counterparts. This longer period is reflected in a two month migration for juveniles - including a lengthy 2 week stopover period that coincides with high insect abundance following peak west African rainfall - compared to a three week autumnal migration period for adults.

The challenges faced by breeding Eleonora’s falcons such as rat predation on eggs and chicks, occasionally severe climate conditions, habitat loss, climate change effects that are impacting water and insect availability as well as disturbances in breeding territories underscore the importance of responsibly managing Special Protection Areas (SPAs) to support the population rehabilitation of Europe’s priority bird species while at the same time balancing the socio-economic needs of local stakeholders which can be achieved under a SPA Management Plan.

Threats:

The distribution of Eleonora’s falcons (Falco eleonorae) overlaps to a great extent with geographically desirable tourist locations and expanding human settlements. As a result, the current conservation status of the falcons is increasingly challenged by various threats that include certain human activities along with wildlife predation and climate change effects that result in habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation as well as significant disturbances to the falcons’ breeding and foraging behaviour.

These threats principally include:

• Predation on eggs and chicks at breeding colonies by black rats (Rattus rattus) which also reduce vegetation cover that is often used to shelter nest sites. Other predators include cats, wild rabbits and occasionally Peregrine falcons;
• use of agricultural pesticides;
• loss of wetlands;
• change of land use, including loss of traditional crop cultivations;
• climate change which is expected to impact insect food and water availability as well as egg losses from enhanced sun irradiation;
• tourism, including recreational sporting activities such as speedboating, jet skiing and hunting conducted in the falcons’ territorial distribution range - the noise of which causes the birds to leave their nests, eggs and young unattended;
• coastal development;
• undisciplined hunting dogs that kill nestlings;
• poachers engaged in illegal trade;
• pollution; and
• the use of sling shots when the birds are roosting in trees because Eleonora’s falcons are not always sufficiently shy of humans.

These threats are becoming more pervasive in the Eleonora falcon territories of the world with resulting impacts on the species’ conservation status. In its assessment of the situation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has acknowledged that “the [Eleonora’s falcon] population trend appears to be decreasing”.

Legal Protection:

Laws and conventions related to the status and protection of Eleanora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) include:

• European Union Birds Directive, Annex I (Council Directive 79/409/EEC);
• Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix II;
• Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species, Appendix II;
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Appendix II; and
• African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1969) – Class B listing of the Falconiformes not listed in Class A - for total protection, except with authorisation by competent authority.

Contact: Constantine Alexander

Rejuvenation of an Island Bird Protected Area (ANDROSSPA LIFE10 NAT/GR/637)

 

During the past several months, our office coordinated and participated in an energized and optimistic team of political decision makers, scientists, Andros Island stakeholders and project managers that jointly prepared a funding application for the creation of a management plan and priority conservation actions to benefit the newly designated EU Natura 2000 Special Protection Area for the Birds (SPA) on Andros Island. The successful cooperation of the assembled team produced a funding application of which stakeholders expressed enthusiastic support and which was submitted for consideration to the LIFE Unit of the European Commission.

The following is a summary of our project application.

Title: Management of the SPA site of Andros Island to achieve a Favorable Conservation Status for its priority species.

Project objectives: The present project aims to implement urgent conservation measures for direct conservation of all four priority species in the SPA (Special Protection Area) of Andros Island, Greece. The overall objective is to establish a well structured, effective, socially acceptable and economically viable Management Scheme for the SPA, capable of coordinating the activities of competent authorities within the site and carrying out the core management duties in order to achieve and maintain the favorable conservation status of priority species in the SPA as a result of its full scale operation.

Specifically, this 48 month project aims to create basic SPA management measures and infrastructure tailored to the needs of the wildlife species and local communities under the SPA Management Plan, and to form a permanent SPA Management Scheme which will then begin the implementation of a full-scale, long-term management of the Andros SPA through the deployment of the project’s concrete conservation actions for the direct protection of Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco Eleanorae*), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus*), Audouin’s Gull (Larus audouinii*) and the Mediterranean Shag (Phalacrocorax aristotelis desmarestii*). The results of these activities are expected to achieve a significant improvement of the conservation status of all four EU priority species in the Andros SPA through the mitigation of the urgent threats with which the species populations as well as their breeding and foraging habitats are faced. The actions foreseen are in accordance with the guidelines and priorities identified by the European Commission and BirdLife International in the International Species Action Plans for the 4 target species. An extensive public awareness and communication campaign will disseminate the project ethos, plans and results to the local society, visitors and the general public.

The project area is the recently established SPA site, “Andros: Kentriko kai notion tmima, gyro insides kai paraktia thalassia zoni”, GR4220028, which includes terrestrial and coastal habitats on Andros island and the surrounding islets. The SPA hosts 182 breeding pairs (p) of F. eleonorae, 2-3 p of H. fasciatus, more than 60p of P. aristotelis and 25-30p of L. audouinii. The conservation actions for the improvement of breeding and foraging habitats in association with the SPA Management Plan will create direct and immediate as well as long-term benefits on the selected local populations of the target species, while public awareness campaigns that inform visitors and residents alike will impact the future conservation of the entire population in the project region.

The project, which will be implemented by the Korthi Municipality in collaboration with the Hellenic Ornithological Society (BirdLife in Greece) and the nature consulting firm NCC Ltd., is the product of a 3 year collaboration for the conservation of the site. During the previous 2 years, the proposal was deemed to be ineligible for Life funding due to the fact that the site had not yet been officially declared as a SPA. Following the elimination of this obstacle in early 2010 with the formal delineation of the Andros SPA site, widespread local support for the project grew and aspirations have run high for the project’s species and habitat conservation actions.

The project partnership involves significant experience and expertise in the implementation of bird conservation projects, Life projects in particular. This experience will be used to tackle the following conservation problems that currently plague the proposed project site:

1. The absence of a SPA management plan and management authority devoted to the conservation of the site;
2. Significant predation by alien invasive species such as Black rats (Rattus rattus) on the eggs and nestlings in the islet breeding colonies of the target species;
3. Predation on nests belonging to L. audouinii and P. aristotelis and competition for food as a result of Yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis) populations;
4. Lack of suitable nesting habitats for island nesting birds;
5. Reduction and abandonment of traditional agricultural practices on terraces as well as degradation of coastal wetlands which have resulted in reduced insect and bird prey availability as well as F. eleonorae foraging habitat degradation;
6. Lack of protection and management of H. fasciatus breeding and foraging areas causing reduced Chukar partridge and pigeon prey availability;
7. Climate change which is impacting food distribution, availability and sufficiency as well as the foraging habitat quality of F. eleonorae and H. fasciatus;
8. Degradation of primary inshore seabird foraging areas due to human activities such as vessel anchoring resulting in reduced diversity and abundance of seabird prey species; and
9. Lack of public awareness about the actual threats currently faced by the target bird species, the importance of protecting their habitats and the conservation measures that can easily be implemented in the Natura 2000 network which contribute to ecotourism and employment creation in Aegean islands, public support and participation in conservation.

These threats and problems will be effectively dealt with in a series of actions implemented by the project partnership.

Actions and means involved:

• Elaboration of the SPA Management Plan, operational plans and technical studies for the concrete conservation actions. These plans include target Species Action Plans, Monitoring, Surveillance Plans and a Public Information Dissemination Plan, sensitivity mapping, setting up of Favorable Reference Values for the 4 target species populations in the SPA, in order to achieve their favorable conservation status.

• Production of a Feasibility Study for the SPA management to identify key parameters for the long term financial viability of the proposed SPA Management Scheme and to propose realistic funding sources for the Scheme.

• Management of nesting habitat for the islet nesting bird species including rat eradications in selected colonies of F. eleonorae, L. audouinii and P. aristotelis and the control of local populations of L. michahellis for mitigation of egg/nestling predation and food competition and to increase breeding success of the target species.

• Establishment of thickets of native shrubs and bushes and the creation of artificial nesting sites for islet nesting bird species, namely F. eleonorae and P. aristotelis, to increase the number of suitable nesting sites.

• Identification, management and protection of primary marine foraging habitats for L. audouinii and P. aristotelis and installation of seagrass-friendly mooring buoys.

• Identification of important terrestrial foraging areas of F. eleonorae, revitalization of agricultural fields to increase insect abundance, creation of small ponds and limited scale interventions of coastal wetland habitats to increase water availability and habitat quality for insects and migratory bird prey availability for F. eleonorae.

• Management of Chukar (Alectoris chukar) and pigeon (Columba spp.) populations through local crop cultivation, watering and revitalization of traditional pigeon lofts to increase food availability of H. fasciatus.

• Establishment and pilot operation of the SPA Management Scheme and the SPA surveillance- patrolling program.

• Implementation of an extensive and well-focused public awareness campaign on the basis of the SPA Dissemination Plan, targeting various focus groups for the conservation of the target species as well as the promotion of the Natura 2000 network and protected areas on Andros. The campaign will involve environmental education activities; special publications; a documentary; an exhibition; stakeholder meetings; media work at the international, national, regional and local level; information signs; and extensive use of the internet media.

• Implementation of workshops and formal meetings regarding concrete conservation actions and management of project SPA.

• The overall project operation will be facilitated through careful and strict project management and the regular operation of the Project Steering Committee to monitor project actions and provide guidance for their implementation. Project scientific monitoring and networking will assess and enhance the effectiveness of the project actions.

Expected results (outputs and quantified achievements):

• A well structured and effective project management to ensure smooth and effective project operation and implementation.

• Production of SPA Management Plan, 4 target species Action Plans, Monitoring Plan, Surveillance Plan, Dissemination Plan and GIS compatible information infrastructure.

• Establishment and pilot operation of the SPA Management Scheme and the Surveillance program.

• A complete removal of accidentally introduced predators (i.e. rats) from at least 5 colonies of Falco eleonorae, Larus audouinii and Phalacrocorax aristotelis.

• Yellow-legged gull population control in at least 3 of its colonies on islets around Andros affecting Larus audouinii.

• Construction of at least 200 artificial nests and plantation of 100 endemic shrubs for improvement of nesting site availability for Falco eleonorae and Phalacrocorax aristotelis.

• Revitalization of at least 10ha of terrace fields, traditional local crop farming and 3 pigeon lofts for the improvement of insect availability to Falco eleonorae, as well as pigeon and Chukar availability to Hieraaetus fasciatus.

• Creation of 15 wildlife ponds and 5 ha of coastal wetland restoration interventions to improve prey abundance for priority raptors.

• Installation and promotion of the use of seagrass-friendly mooring buoys and delineation of seasonal fishery restriction areas.

• An overall improvement of public awareness among the general public and various focus groups about the socio-economic and biodiversity benefits of conserving the four target bird species and SPA site on Andros.

This project proposal was submitted by the Korthi Municipality to the LIFE Unit of the European Commission for funding consideration. It received the support of the Greek Ministry for the Environment, Energy & Climate Change the two remaining Municipalities of Andros Island (i.e. Chora and Ydroussa) as well as the support of the Union of Fishermen of the Southern Aegean.

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